BHIKKHUNĪS AND SOCIAL CHANGE: COMPARATIVE LESSONS FROM TAIWAN, SRI LANKA, AND THAILAND
Keywords:
Bhikkhuni, Buddhism, Revival, Gender EqualityAbstract
This article investigates the revival of the Bhikkhunī order and its impact on social change in Taiwan, Sri Lanka, and Thailand. Employing comparative historical methods and documentary analysis of both secondary sources and relevant primary materials—including organizational reports, bhikkhunī network publications, and legal or religious institutional documents—the study examines the patterns, processes, and key factors influencing the revival. The findings reveal three primary models of revival: (1) continuity through established traditions, (2) proactive revitalization supported by international networks, and (3) institutional resistance. The major enabling factors include the flexibility of existing bhikkhunī ordination lineages, the presence of transnational networks, support from Buddhist organizations, and prevailing societal attitudes within each country. In contrast, the principal obstacles consist of local legal restrictions, internal power conflicts within national monastic communities, and divergent interpretations of monastic discipline.
The article proposes several policy-oriented recommendations: promoting education and training for bhikkhunīs, establishing formal practice and learning spaces, and creating platforms for dialogue among relevant sectors to enhance public acceptance. The revival of the Bhikkhunī Saṅgha not only transforms religious status but also catalyzes notable social changes, such as expanding women’s roles in public service and education, reshaping gender norms within communities, and increasing institutional pressure to reform policy frameworks. Consequently, the re-establishment of the bhikkhunī lineage serves as a measurable and substantive driver of social transformation in the region, with outcomes assessable through both quantitative and qualitative indicators in future research.
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